All about Indian philosophers

ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS (1500 BCE – 500 CE)

The Veda-s are ancient Indian sacred texts from around 1500-500 BCE that form the foundation of Hinduism. The word “Veda” means “knowledge” in Sanskrit, and these texts are considered apaurusheya, or “not created by humans.” They were said to have been heard (sruta) by the rishi-s, or sages, within their in-depth cognisance and meditation.

The Hindu philosopher Kumarila Bhatta argued that only Veda-s had the authority to define human moral values since they were “beginningless, authorless and of self-sufficient validity.”

The Veda-s are a collection of hymns, prayers, rituals and philosophical discussions, divided into four main categories: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. They contain insights into the nature of the universe, the role of the gods, and the human condition, and are considered a source of spiritual guidance, wisdom and knowledge.

Prominent sages associated with the composition of the Veda-s include Vasishtha, Kanva, Atri, Bharadwaja, Yajnavalka, Madhucchandas, Jaimini, Gautama, Atharva and Angiras.

Sage Krishnadwaipayana is credited with the compilation (or arrangement) of the Veda-s into four texts, and is reverentially addressed as Veda-vyasa. He is also regarded as the author of the epic Mahābhārata (including the Bhagavad-gita), where he also plays a prominent role as a character, and the 18 Purāṇa-s, a vast genre of Indian literature that include a wide range of topics, especially legends and other traditional lore.

Rigvedic Sages

The Rigveda is the oldest and biggest among the four Veda-s. It is a collection of 1,028 sukta-s, or hymns, divided into 10 mandala-s, or books, which are further subdivided into various sections. It contains prayers, rituals and philosophical discussions, and is a rich source of insight into ancient Indian culture, spirituality and society, and its influence can be seen in many aspects of Hinduism, including its mythology, rituals and philosophical traditions.

Here are some key philosophical ideas explored the Rigvedic sages:

Cosmology and Creation

• Concept of Brahman: The Rigvedic sages introduced the concept of Brahman, the ultimate reality that pervades the universe
• Cosmic Order (Rta): They described the cosmic order, Rta, which governs the universe and maintains balance and harmony
• Creation Myths: The Rigveda contains various creation myths, such as the Purusha-sukta, which describe the origin of the universe and the emergence of the gods

Theology and Spirituality

• Polytheism: The Rigvedic sages worshipped multiple gods and goddesses, each associated with natural phenomena and human experiences
• Concept of Atman: They introduced the concept of Atman, the individual self or soul, which is connected to the ultimate reality, Brahman
• Meditation and Yoga: The Rigveda contains references to meditation and yoga practices, which were used to attain spiritual insight and union with the divine

Ethics and Morality

• Concept of Dharma: The Rigvedic sages emphasised the importance of dharma, or righteous living, which involves fulfilling one’s duties and responsibilities
• Importance of Truth: They stressed the importance of truth (satya) and honesty in human relationships
• Concept of Karma: The Rigveda contains references to the concept of karma, which suggests that an individual’s actions have consequences in this life and the next

Metaphysics and Epistemology

• Concept of Maya: The Rigvedic sages introduced the concept of maya, or illusion, which suggests that the world we experience is not ultimately real
• Importance of Intuition: They emphasised the importance of intuition (aparoksha, or direct experience) in understanding the ultimate reality
• Concept of Sruti: The Rigveda is considered sruti (that which is heard), or revealed knowledge, which is considered authoritative and timeless

These philosophical ideas of the Rigvedic sages laid the foundation for later Indian philosophical traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

Upanishadic Sages

The Upanishad-s, 108 in number, can be termed as the knowledge portion at the end of the Veda-s, since they expound the Veda-s in predominantly mystical and monistic terms. Composed as  sruta (heard) between 800-200 BCE, they are a collection of dialogues, discussions and mystical experiences that explore the nature of ultimate reality, the self and the universe. The Upanishad-s provide a framework for spiritual growth and self-realisation that has influenced Indian thought and spirituality for centuries.

Prominent sages associated with the composition of the Upanishad-s include Yajnavalka, Uddalaka Aruni, Shvetaketu, Sanatkumara, Narada, Shandilya, Aitareya, Kabandha, Maitreya and Vedavyasa. Women such as Maitreyi and Gargi are also credited in the early Upanishads.

Here are some key philosophical ideas of the Upanishadic sages:

Ultimate Reality (Brahman)

• Brahman as unchanging: They described Brahman as unchanging, eternal and immutable
• Brahman as consciousness: The Upanishads also describe Brahman as consciousness or awareness

Individual Self (Atman)

• Atman as eternal: They described atman as eternal, immortal and unchanging
• Atman as consciousness: The Upanishads also describe atman as consciousness or awareness

Relationship between Brahman and Atman

• Identity of Brahman and Atman: The Upanishadic sages proposed the idea that Brahman and atman are ultimately identical
• Non-dualism (Advaita): This idea of non-dualism, or advaita, suggests that the ultimate reality is a unified, indivisible whole

Liberation (Moksha)

• Concept of Moksha: The Upanishadic sages explored the concept of moksha, or liberation from the cycle of birth, death and re-birth
• Path to Moksha: They described various paths to moksha, including self-inquiry, meditation and devotion

Ethics and Morality

• Concept of Dharma: The Upanishadic sages emphasised the importance of dharma, or righteous living
• Importance of self-control: They stressed the importance of self-control, self-discipline and detachment

Metaphysics and Epistemology

• Concept of Maya: The Upanishadic sages introduced the concept of maya, or illusion, which suggests that the world we experience is not ultimately real
• Importance of intuition: They emphasised the importance of intuition, or direct experience, in understanding the ultimate reality

These philosophical ideas of the Upanishadic sages laid the foundation for later Indian philosophical traditions, including Advaita Vedanta, Yoga and Tantra. Translations of the Upanishads in the early 19th century attracted attention from a Western audience. German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer called them “the most profitable and elevating reading which … is possible in the world.” Modern Indologists have discussed the similarities between the fundamental concepts in the Upanishad-s and the works of major Western philosophers.

Schools of Indian philosophy

Flowing from the wisdom of the Veda-s and the Upanishad-s, six orthodox schools (Shat-darshana) of Hindu philosophy emerged, which came to be known as Aastika group, based on their acceptance of the authority of the Veda-s. They are Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta).

Three heterodox schools of philosophy also emerged as part of the diverse schools of Indian Darshanaparampara, popularly known as Nastika schools, which reject the principle of authority of Veda-s. They are Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka school of materialism.

First let us look at the exponents of the six Aasthika schools of Hindu philosophy.

THE SIX AASTIKA SCHOOLS (Shat-Darshana)

Aksapada Gautama – Nyaya-darshana

Aksapada Gautama, also known as Gotama, was an ancient Indian philosopher and logician who is believed to have lived in the 2nd century CE, although some sources place him as early as the 6th century BCE. He is credited with authoring the Nyaya Sutra-s, a foundational text of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy.

The Nyaya Sutra-s are a collection of about 500 aphorisms that outline the principles of the Nyaya school, which believes that knowledge gained through pramana (valid means or proof) is the only way of attaining liberation from the cycle of birth, death and re-birth. The text consists of five chapters, each dealing with a different aspect of knowledge and reality.

1. Pratyaksha (Perception): Knowledge that arises by the contact of one or more senses with an object or phenomenon. Example –  seeing a red apple and directly perceiving its colour and shape with one’s own eyes. Pratyaksha literally means within the range of sight in Sanskrit
2. Anumana (Inference): Knowledge that follows or derives from other knowledge; it always follows perception. Example –  observing smoke and inferring that there must be fire. Anumana literally means ‘knowledge that follows’ in Sanskrit
3. Upamana (Comparison): Knowledge based on similarity, comparison or analogy, and considered reliable. It is a mental shortcut that helps understand new things by relating them to known things.  Example – Explaining the taste of a kiwi fruit as ‘a bit like strawberry but also has the tartness of a green apple’ to someone who never tasted the fruit. Upamana literally translates to “measuring alongside” in Sanskrit
4. Shabda (Verbal Testimony): Knowledge based on the word, or testimony of a trusted or reliable source. Example – Aptavakya, advice given by a parent, guru or close relative
5. Pramana and Prameya (Knowledge and Reality): While pramana is the means of knowing, prameya is the object of knowledge. Examples of Pramana –  pratyaksha, anumana, shabda and upamana, as above. Examples of prameya – self (atma), body (shariram), senses (indriyaṃ), experiences (artha), intelligence (buddhi), intellect (manas), activity (pravṛitti) and imbalances (doṣha)

Aksapada’s Nyaya Sutra-s helped systematise the principles of logic, epistemology and metaphysics, and develop the concept of inference and its applications. They established the Nyaya school as a distinct philosophical tradition, and influenced subsequent philosophical schools, including Vaisheshika and Mimamsa.

Kanada – Vaisheshika-darshana

Kanada, also known as Kashyapa, the founder of the Vaisheshika school of philosophy, is believed to have lived around the 2nd century BCE. ‘Kanada’ is a nickname that means ‘atom eater’ or ‘one who consumes small particles.’

Kanada’s Vaisheshika school of thought was one of the earliest to emphasise the study of nature and the classification of objects, which he elaborated in Vaisheshika Sutra (also Kanada Sutra), the foundational text of the school. The name Vaisheshika comes from the Sanskrit word vishesa, which means ‘particularity’ or category that represents the individuality of innumerable existing objects.

Kanada’s Vaisheshika philosophy is based on the concept of “anu” or “atom,” which is indivisible, indestructible and eternal. The atom is indivisible because it is a state at which no measurement can be attributed. He believed that all physical things in the universe are composed of four classes of atoms (earth, water, fire and air), which combine and recombine to form different objects. Two of them have mass and two are massless.

Kanada’s philosophy can be summarised into nine fundamental principles:

1. Anu (atom): The indivisible and eternal building blocks of the universe. Also called paramanu
2. Dravya (substance): The fundamental building blocks of the universe – nine in number. The first five are prithvi (earth), aapaha (water), tejas (fire), vayu (air) and akasha (ether), together called as panchabhuta and can be perceived by the external senses; and the last four are kala (time), dik (space), atman (self/soul) and manas (mind), which are indivisible
3. Guna (quality): The attributes or properties of substances – 24 in number. The original 17 guṇa-s are, rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), sparsha (touch), samkhya (number), parimana (size/dimension/quantity), pṛthaktva (individuality), samyoga (conjunction/accompaniments), vibhaga (disjunction), paratva (priority), aparatva (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure), dukkha (pain), iccha (desire), dvesha (aversion) and prayatna (effort). To these were later added gurutva (heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (viscosity), dharma      (merit), adharma (demerit), shabda (sound) and samskara (faculty)
4. Karma (action): The forces/actions that bring about change in substances – five in number. They are: utkshepana (upward motion), avakshepana (downward motion), akunchana (contraction), prasarana (expansion) and gamana (locomotion)
5. Samanya (generality): The common characteristics shared by substances, e.g., birds, fruits, fish, etc.
6. Vishesha (particularity): The unique characteristics that distinguish substances from one another
7. Samavaya (inherence): The relationship between substances and their attributes tht is inseparable and intimate, e.g., colour of a flower, motion of water, etc.
8. Abhava (non-existence): The absence of a substance or attribute. Added later by commentators
9. Padartha (category): The classification of substances and attributes as per the above seven principles. All things that exist, that can be cognised and named are padartha-s (literal meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience

It is to be noted that the Vaisheṣhika-s place the concepts of time and place under dravya (substance); and relation, inherence, quantity and property under guna (quality). This classification system was influential in the development of Indian philosophy and science, including Buddhist and Jain thought.

According to the Vaisheṣhika school, knowledge and liberation are achievable by a complete understanding of the world of experience. While applying logic and realism to explain the creation and existence of the universe through the theory of atoms as fundamental particles, Kanada combined these ideas with the concept of atman (soul, self) to develop a non-theistic means to moksha (liberation).

The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika schools deal with the world of experience and the material constitution of the world, and show the way to attain supreme knowledge.

Although both the schools developed independently, the two became similar and are often studied together. However, unlike Nyaya school, which accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaisheṣhika school accepted only two reliable means to knowledge – pratyaksha pramana (direct perception through eyes, and other senses) and anumana (inference).

Kapila – Samkhya-darshana

Kapila, also known as  Chakradhanus, was a Vedic sage who lived around 550 BCE, and is considered to be the founder of the Samkhya (also Sankhya)  school of Hindu philosophy. The Bhagavad-gita, or “Song of God,” describes Kapila as a ‘siddha’ (perfected being) while the Bhagavata-purana describes him as a sage who taught his mother Devahuti about yoga and theistic dualism. Buddhist sources say that Kapila was a well-known philosopher whose students built the city of Kapilavastu on the eastern Gangetic plains in his honour, which later became the ancient capital of the Shakya clan and the childhood home of Prince Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha, also known as Shakyamuni). 

Kapila’s teachings, as recorded in the Samkhya-karika, emphasise the importance of understanding the nature of reality and the self. The text opens by stating that the pursuit of happiness is a basic need of all human beings. Yet, one is afflicted by three forms of suffering, a truth that motivates this text to study the means of counteracting suffering.

Here are the key teachings of Kapila:

Fundamental Principles

• Dualism: Kapila taught that the universe consists of two fundamental realities: purusha (consciousness) and prakriti (matter)
• Purusha: Kapila described purusha as the unchanging, all-pervading witness-consciousness that underlies all existence
• Prakriti: He described prakriti as the dynamic, ever-changing material world that is governed by the laws of nature
• Jiva (a living being) is the state in which purusha is bonded to prakriti. Human experience is an interplay of the two, purusha being conscious of the various combinations of cognitive activities. The end of the bondage of purusha to prakriti is called moksha (liberation) or kaivalya (isolation/freedom)

The Three Guna-s

1. Sattva: Kapila taught that sattva is the guna (quality) of purity, clarity and balance
2. Rajas: He described rajas as the guna of activity, passion and movement
3. Tamas: Kapila taught that tamas is the guna of darkness, ignorance and inertia

Material nature, according to Kapila, consists of the equilibrium of the above three material qualities: goodness as the cause of material happiness, passion as the cause of material distress, and ignorance as the cause of illusion. Our material experience lies within the boundaries of these three manifestations. A guṇa is an entity that can change, either increase or decrease; therefore, pure consciousness is called nirguna or without any modification.

The Seven Tattva-s (principles)

1. Mahat-tatva: Kapila described mahat-tatva as the great principle that underlies all existence
2. Ahamkara: He taught that ahamkara is the principle of individuality and ego
3. Manas: Kapila described manas as the principle of mind and intellect
4. Buddhi: He taught that buddhi is the principle of intuition and higher knowledge
5. Pancha-tanmatra-s: Kapila described tanmatra-s as the five ‘subtle elements’ that underlie the material world and form the objects of the five cognitive senses (sound, touch, sight, taste and smell)
6. Pancha-bhuta-s: He taught that pancha-bhuta-s are the five gross elements that make up the material world. They are prithvi (earth), jal (water), agni (fire), vayu (air) and akasha (space or ether)
7. Purusha: Kapila described purusha as the ultimate reality that underlies all existence

Liberation

• Moksha: Kapila taught that moksha, or liberation, is the ultimate goal of human existence.
• Self-realisation: He emphasised the importance of self-realisation and understanding one’s true nature as a means to liberation.
• Detachment: Kapila taught that detachment from worldly attachments is essential for achieving liberation

Yoga and Meditation

• Yoga: Kapila taught that yoga as a means of achieving union with the ultimate reality
• Meditation: He emphasised the importance of meditation in achieving self-realisation and liberation

Samkhya forms the theoretical foundation of the Yoga school of Hinduism. In traditional yoga philosophy and practice, the human being is likened to a building with 10 doors:

• Five are entrance doors – for sight, sound, smell, taste and touch  – (jnanendriya, or cognitive senses,used for acquiring knowledge), and
• Five are exit doors – motor functions for speaking, grasping, walking, procreating and excreting  (karmendriya, action senses for external expression, i.e,. for interactions with the world around us). 

Consciously, actively and intentionally observing these 10 senses as they function is an important part of yoga.

According to Kapila, material nature produced material energy, known as mahat-tatva, and mahat-tatva produced the false ego. The ego produced the five objects of sense perception (tanmatra-s), which produced the ten senses (jnendriya and karmendriya), the mind (manas) and the five gross elements. Counting the purusha, or the enjoyer, with these 24 elements, there are 25 different truths. The non-manifested stage of these 25 elementary truths is called prakriti, or material nature. 

The word samkhya means ’empirical’ or ‘relating to numbers.’ The Samkhya system is called so because ‘it “enumerates'” 25 tattva-s or true principles; and its chief objective is to effect the final emancipation of the twenty-fifth tattva, i.e., the purusha or soul.’

As Sanskrit scholar, Indologist and philosopher Gopinath Kaviraj said, “Samkhya is not one of the systems of Indian philosophy. Samkhya is the philosophy of India!”

Patanjali – Yoga-darshana

Patanjali, an Indian sage and philosopher who built upon Kapila’s Samkhya philosophy, is best known for compiling the Yoga Sutra-s, a foundational text of yoga,  around 400 CE. The Yoga Sutra-s provide a comprehensive and practical framework for achieving spiritual growth, self-realisation and ultimate liberation.

Similarities and Shared Goals

• Dualism: Both Kapila and Patanjali adhered to a dualistic worldview, which posits the existence of two fundamental realities: purusha (consciousness) and prakriti (matter)
• Evolution of Prakriti: Kapila’s Samkhya philosophy describes the evolution of prakriti into the various elements and principles that constitute the universe. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra-s build upon this concept, exploring the role of prakriti in the human experience
• Liberation: Both Kapila and Patanjali aim to help individuals achieve liberation (kaivalya or moksha) from the cycle of birth, death and re-birth
• Self-realisation: Their teachings share the common goal of helping individuals realise their true nature as purusha, untainted by the influences of prakriti

Integration of Yoga Practices

• Eight Limbs of Yoga: While Kapila’s Samkhya philosophy provides the theoretical foundation for understanding the nature of purusha and prakriti, Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra-s outline the eight limbs of yoga, which provide a practical framework for realising the ultimate goal of yoga: the isolation of purusha from prakriti
• Practical Application: While Kapila’s Samkhya philosophy focuses on the theoretical understanding of the universe, Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra-s provide practical guidance on how to apply this understanding to achieve spiritual growth and self-realisation

Here are the key teachings of Patanjali:

Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga-yoga)

1. Yama-s: Universal ethics, including non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possessiveness
2. Niyama-s: Personal observances, including cleanliness, contentment, self-discipline, self-study and surrender to a higher power
3. Asana-s: Physical postures, which help to balance and harmonise the body, mind and spirit
4. Pranayama: Breathing techniques, which help to calm and focus the mind
5. Pratyahara: Withdrawal, or control, of the senses, which helps to quiet the mind and prepare for meditation
6. Dharana: Concentration, which involves focussing the mind on a single object of meditation
7. Dhyana: Meditation, which involves delving into a deeper state of consciousness and awareness
8. Samadhi: Absorption, or total self-collectedness, which is the ultimate state of union with the divine

While the first five stages are external aids to yoga, the last three are purely mental or internal aids. Patanjali also teaches that a guru, or spiritual teacher, can help guide the student on the path to liberation.

The Five Afflictions (Pancha-klesha)

1. Avidya: Ignorance, which is the root cause of suffering
2. Asmita: Egoism, which creates a sense of separation and individuality
3. Raga: Attachment, which creates desires and cravings
4. Dvesha: Aversion, which creates dislikes and hatred
5. Abhinivesha: Fear of death or excessive attachment to life, which creates anxiety and insecurity

Practice of self-awareness, meditation and yoga help identify, comprehend and overcome these five afflictions on the path of yoga. 

The Seven Wheels (Chakra-s)

Patanjali’s teachings also mention the seven chakras, or energy centres, in the human body, which are:

1. Mooladhara: The root chakra, located at the base of the spine
2. Svadhisthana: The sacral chakra, located in the lower abdomen
3. Manipura: The solar plexus chakra, located in the upper abdomen
4. Anahata: The heart chakra, located in the centre of the chest
5. Vishuddha: The throat chakra, located in the neck
6. Ajna: The third eye chakra, located between the eyebrows
7. Sahasrara: The crown chakra, located at the top of the head

The seven energy centres running up the spine are believed to affect the physical, emotional and spiritual health of the individuals. They are traditionally considered as meditation aids. The practitioner of yoga progresses from the lower chakra-s to the highest chakra blossoming in the crown of the head, internalising the journey of spiritual ascent by means of a dormant energy, known as kundalini, residing near or in the lowest chakra.

In course of time, certain stages of yoga became ends in themselves — for instance, Hatha-yoga, which focusses solely on breathing exercises and sitting postures for healthy living, and Tantra, an esoteric yogic tradition. The yoga postulated by Patanjali is sometimes referred to as Raja(royal)-yoga to distinguish it from other schools.

Yoga, in a less technical sense of achieving union with God, is also used to distinguish the three alternative paths (trimarga) to such a union – Karma Yoga, the path of action; Bhakti Yoga, the path of devotion; and Jnana Yoga, the path of knowledge.

Patanjali is also credited with writing the Maha-bhashya (Great Commentary) expounding on the famous grammarian Panini’s notable work Aṣhṭādhyāyī (literally meaning Eight Chapters, such as phonetics, morphology, syntax and semantics), which formally codified classical Sanskrit as a refined and standardised language in the form of 4,000 sutra-s or aphorisms.

“Nasti samkhya-samam shashtram, nasti yoga-samam balam” goes an ancient Indian saying. “There is no philosophy equal to Samkhya and there is no strength higher than that of yoga.”

Jaimini – Mimamsa-darshana

Jaimini (c. 400 BCE) was an ancient Indian philosopher and sage who founded the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy. He is believed to have studied under the sage Badarayana, the author of Brahma Sutra-s and the founder of the Vedanta school of philosophy. The Sanskrit word Mimamsa can be loosely translated as investigation or inquiry, presumably of the Veda-s.

Jaimini’s magnum opus, the Mimamsa Sutra-s, is a comprehensive treatise on the interpretation of the Vedas. The text, divided into 12 chapters and 2,700 sutra-s (aphorisms), provides a systematic framework for understanding the Veda-s, and the rituals and sacrifices prescribed in them.

Here’s an overview of Jaimini’s Mimamsa philosophy:

Jaimini’s philosophy focussed on the interpretation of the Veda-s as the wellspring of knowledge, particularly the Samhita-s and the Brahmana-s attached to the Samhita-s in particular. While Samhita-s are the earliest part of the Veda-s, consisting of hymns, mantra-s, prayers and benedictions, the Brahmana-s are prose commentaries that explain the meaning of those hymns and mantra-s and also lay out the precepts, rituals and religious duties in great detail.

Mimamsa metaphysics is rooted in the concept of “dharma,” which refers to the natural order and morality. It posits that the universe is governed by a set of moral and natural laws, which are revealed through the Veda-s.

Key Principles of Mimamsa:

• The Authority of the Veda-s: Mimamsa school holds the Veda-s as the supreme authority on all matters spiritual and ritualistic. It emphasises the importance of interpreting the Veda-s in a literal and ritualistic sense
• The Importance of Rituals: Mimamsa attempted to provide a logical basis for Vedic ceremonial practices. It emphasised the performance of rituals and sacrifices described in the Veda-s as a means to attain spiritual growth and liberation
• The Role of Karma and Dharma: Jaimini’s philosophy emphasised the importance of following one’s dharma (duties and responsibilities) as described in the Veda-s. It also highlighted the significance of karma (actions) in shaping an individual’s destiny
• The Concept of Apurva: Jaimini introduced the concept of “apurva,” which refers to the unseen, supernatural power that is generated through the performance of rituals and sacrifices, and the chanting of the mantra-s. It is a performative element that justifies ritualistic acts and their results 

Jaimini’s emphasis on rituals and sacrifices influenced the development of Hindu worship and practices. Many Hindu rituals, such as the performance of yajna-s (sacrifices) and the recitation of mantra-s, are rooted in Mimamsa philosophy. Additionally, his ideas on dharma and karma continue to shape Hindu ethics and morality. The debates and discussions between the Mimamsa school and the Vedanta school led to a deeper understanding of Hindu philosophy.

Two later academics, Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara Mishra, authored treatises on the Mimamsa philosophy to interpret it in a theistic way.

Criticisms and Debates:

Mimamsa has faced criticisms and debates from other Indian philosophical traditions, such as Vedanta and Nyaya. Some of the criticisms include:

• Overemphasis on Rituals: Critics argue that Mimamsa places too much emphasis on rituals and sacrifices, neglecting the importance of spiritual growth and self-realisation
• Lack of Emphasis on Brahman: Vedantins argue that Mimamsa fails to emphasise the importance of Brahman, the ultimate reality, and instead focusses on the performance of rituals

Jaimini’s Mimamsa school deals with the karma-kanda (ritual & sacrifices) in the initial sections of the Veda-s (brahmana-s and samhita-s) while Vedanta deals with the jnana-kanda (the wisdom portion) in the later sections of the Veda-s (upanishad-s). Considering this, the two are also termed as Purva-mimamsa (lit. earlier investigation/inquiry) on right practices and Uttara-mimamsa (later investigation/inquiry) on right thought respectively.

Vedanta School of Hindu philosophy

Multiple people are associated with the founding of the Vedanta philosophy, including Badarayana, Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhvacharya and Nimbarka,. 

While the Vedanta Sutra (Brahma Sutra), the foundational text of the Vedanta school of philosophy, is attributed to Badarayana, Shankaracharya is considered the most prominent exponent and systematiser of the Advaita Vedanta school, a major branch of Vedanta. 

We shall know more in detail about the Vedanta school in the ‘Classical Indian Philosophers’ section ahead.

Before that, let us understand the three Nastika schools of Indian philosophy:

THE THREE NASTIKA SCHOOLS

Mahavira – Samyak-dharma

Mahavira (599-527 BCE, based on traditional accounts), also known as Vardhamāna, was the 24^th and last Tirthankara (Supreme Preacher) of Jainism, who revived and reformed the Jain teachings of his time.

Born into a royal Kshatriya Jain family of ancient India (near modern-day Vaishali in Bihar), Mahavira abandoned all worldly possessions at the age of about 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic. After practicing intense meditation and severe austerities for twelve-and-a-half years, he attained kevala-jnana (omniscience or complete knowledge). He preached for 30 years before attaining moksha (liberation).

Mahavira taught a unique philosophy that emphasised non-violence, self-control and spiritual liberation. Here are the key teachings of Mahavira:

Fundamental Principles

• Ahimsa (non-violence): Mahavira taught that all living beings have a right to live and that violence against them should be avoided at all costs
• Satya (truthfulness): He emphasised the importance of speaking the truth and being honest in all interactions
• Aparigraha (non-possessiveness): Mahavira advocated for a simple life, free from attachments and possessions
• Brahmacharya (celibacy): He taught that celibacy is essential for spiritual growth and self-control

The Three Jewels

Jainism emphasises that ratnatraya (triple gems of Jainism) constitutes the path to liberation:

1. Samyak-darshana (right faith or view): Mahavira emphasised the importance of having faith in the true nature of reality
2. Samyak-jnana (right knowledge): He taught that knowledge is essential for understanding the world and achieving spiritual liberation
3. Samyak-charitra (right conduct): Mahavira emphasised the importance of living a life of non-violence, truthfulness and self-control

The Five Vows

Jain ethical code prescribes two ses of dharma or rules of conduct, one for those who wish to become ascetics and another for the śrāvaka (householders). Five fundamental vows are prescribed for both votaries. These vows are observed by śrāvaka (householders) partially and are termed as anuvrata-s (small vows). Jain ascetics observe these fives vows more strictly as mahavrata-s (major vows). These five vows are:

• Ahimsa (non-violence): Mahavira taught that all living beings should be treated with respect and compassion
• Satya (truthfulness): He emphasised the importance of speaking the truth and being honest in all interactions
• Asteya (non-stealing): Mahavira taught that stealing is a form of violence and should be avoided
• Aparigraha (non-possessiveness): He advocated for a simple life, free from attachments and possessions
• Brahmacharya (celibacy): Mahavira taught that celibacy is essential for spiritual growth and self-control

Karma and Re-birth

• Karma (action): Mahavira taught that every action has consequences and that karma determines an individual’s future
• Punarjanma (re-birth): He believed in the cycle of birth, death and re-birth (saṃsara), and taught that the goal of life is to achieve liberation, or release, from this cycle

Liberation

• Moksha: Mahavira taught that liberation (moksha) is the ultimate goal of life
• Self-realisation: He emphasised the importance of self-realisation and understanding one’s true nature
• Detachment: Mahavira taught that detachment from worldly attachments is essential for achieving liberation

Buddha – Dhammapada

Born into a royal family in Lumbini in what is now Nepal, Siddhartha Gautama (@ 563-483 BCE) renounced his home life  as a prince to become a wandering ascetic. After leading a life of mendicancy, asceticism and meditation, he attained nirvana (enlightenment) at Bodh Gaya in what is now India, and came to be known as the Buddha (the awakened). His earliest teachings, known as the Dhammapada, are the foundation of Buddhism. Here are the key teachings:

The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths (chatvari-arya-satyani or chattari-ariyasacchani) are “the truths of the noble one (the Buddha),” a statement of how things really are when they are seen correctly.

1. The truth of suffering (dukkha): Life is marked by suffering, dissatisfaction and uncertainty
2. The truth of the origin/cause of suffering (samudaya): Suffering arises from craving, aversion and ignorance
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha): Suffering can be overcome by eliminating its causes
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (marga or magga): The path to the end of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path (āryāṣṭāṅgamārga or ariya atthangika magga) is an early summary of the path of Buddhist practices for release from samsara (the painful cycle of birth, death and re-birth), leading to liberation in the form of nirvana.

1. Right understanding (samyak-drishti or samma-ditthi): Understanding the true nature of reality
2. Right intention (samyak-sankalpa or samma-sankappa): Cultivating a positive and compassionate mindset
3. Right speech (samyak-vacha or samma-vacha): Speaking truthfully and kindly
4. Right action (samyak-kramantha or samma-kammanta): Acting with ethics and compassion
5. Right livelihood (samyak-ajiva or samma-ajiva): Earning a living in a way that does not harm others
6. Right effort (samyak-vyayama or samma-vayama): Cultivating a positive and disciplined mindset
7. Right mindfulness (samyak-smriti or samma-sati): Developing awareness and presence in daily life
8. Right concentration (samyak-samadhi or samma-samadhi): Cultivating mental clarity and focus through meditation

The Three Jewels

Buddha, dharma and sangha, also known as triratna (three gems in Sanskrit), are the central principles at the heart of Buddhism, and becoming a Buddhist involves making them the core of one’s life. 

1. The Buddha: The teacher who guides us on the path to enlightenment
2. The Dharma: The teachings of the Buddha that guide us on the path
3. The Sangha: The community of practitioners who support and guide each other

The Five Precepts

The Five Precepts of Buddhism (pancha-sheela) are a set of guidelines for living an ethical life. Buddhist scriptures explain them as the minimal standard of Buddhist morality. They are: 

1. Abstain from harming living beings: Cultivating compassion and non-violence
2. Abstain from taking what is not given: Cultivating honesty and generosity
3. Abstain from sensual misconduct: Cultivating healthy relationships and self-discipline
4. Abstain from false speech: Cultivating truthfulness and kindness in speech
5. Abstain from intoxicants: Cultivating clarity of mind and keen awareness in daily life

Key Concepts

• Karma: The law of cause and effect, where actions have consequences
• Rebirth: The cycle of birth, death and re-birth, driven by karma
• Anatman: The concept of no permanent self, emphasising the impermanent nature of all phenomena
• Shunyata (emptiness): The concept that all phenomena lack inherent existence and are empty of independent reality
• Sati (mindfulness): The practice of cultivating awareness and presence in daily life

These teachings provide a foundation for understanding the Buddha’s message and the principles of Buddhism.

Charvaka

The Charvaka school of thought, also known as Lokayata, evolved as a heterodox philosophical school around the 6th century BCE. While the existence of a philosopher named Charvaka is disputed, Barhaspatya Sutra, the foundational text of Charvaka philosophy, is attributed to the sage Brihaspati.

The term Charvaka literally means ‘sweet-tongued’ in Sanskrit, implying suitable to all. The term Lokayata is derived from the Sanskrit words ‘loka’ meaning ‘world’ or ‘people’ and ‘ayata’ meaning ‘prevalent’ or ‘current’, and roughly translates to ‘the prevalent worldview’ or ‘the philosophy of the common people.’

Here are some key aspects of Charvaka philosophy:

Key Principles:

• Materialism: The school believes that matter is the only reality, and consciousness arises from the interaction of matter
• Hedonism: Lokayata advocates for the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain as the primary goals of human life
• Scepticism: The school questions the authority of the Veda-s and other sacred texts, advocating for reason and observation as the basis for knowledge
• Rejection of Afterlife: Lokayata denies the existence of an afterlife, reincarnation and the concept of karma

Criticisms by Other Philosophical Schools:

• Advaita Vedanta: Adi Shankaracharya, the founder of Advaita Vedanta, criticised Lokayata’s materialism, hedonism and perceived nihilism, arguing that they lead to a superficial and fleeting understanding of reality
• Nyaya: The Nyaya school, founded by Gotama, criticised Lokayata’s rejection of the afterlife and the concept of karma, arguing that these concepts are essential for understanding the nature of reality and the human condition
• Buddhism: Buddhist philosophers, such as Nagarjuna, criticised Charvaka’s rejection of the afterlife and the concept of karma

Legacy

Despite these criticisms, Charvaka ideas remain an important part of Indian philosophical heritage, influencing thought and debate to this day.

• Influence on Indian Philosophy: Charvaka ideas influenced the development of other Indian heterodox philosophical schools, such as Buddhism and Jainism
• Indian Materialism: Lokayata’s materialism has influenced the development of Indian materialist thought, which emphasises the importance of matter and the physical world
• Rationalism and Scepticism: Lokayata’s emphasis on reason and scepticism has influenced the development of rationalist and sceptical thought in India, which questions traditional authority and emphasises empirical observation
• Secularism and Humanism: Lokayata’s rejection of supernaturalism and its emphasis on human well-being has influenced the development of secular and humanist thought in India, which emphasises the importance of human values and the pursuit of happiness
• Science and Religion: Lokayata’s materialism and scepticism are relevant to contemporary debates about the relationship between science and religion
• Ethics and Morality: Lokayata’s emphasis on human well-being and the pursuit of pleasure is relevant to contemporary debates about ethics and morality
• Philosophy of Mind: Lokayata’s ideas about the nature of consciousness and the mind-body problem are relevant to contemporary debates in the philosophy of mind

Charvaka’s ideas had a significant impact on Indian thought, influencing various philosophical schools, including:

• Ajivika: A philosophical school that emphasised determinism and the rejection of free will
• Buddhism: Charvaka’s scepticism and emphasis on reason may have influenced the development of Buddhist thought, particularly in its critique of traditional Indian philosophy and its emphasis on empirical observation

CLASSICAL INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS (500 CE to 1500 CE)

Adi Shankaracharya – Advaita Vedanta

Born into a devout Brahmin household in Kaladi, Kerala, Shankara (788-820 CE?) had his early education in traditional Vedic studies. Initiated into sannyasa (a life of renunciation) by his teacher-guru, Govinda Bhagavatpada, he later travelled extensively, participating in debates and discussions on philosophy with eminent scholars and heads of various religious sects, and visiting major pilgrimage centres, including Kashi, Gaya and Badrinath.

As a student of the prasthana-trayi (three canonical sources, the Upanishad-s, the Bhagavad-gītā and the Brahma Sutra-s composed by Badarayana), which are the foundational scriptures of Vedanta (Vedic-Upanishadic philosophy given as the end portions of the Veda-s), Shankaracharyapropoundedand expanded uponseveral key philosophical concepts of Hinduism, especially of Advaita Vedanta (monistic or non-dualistic philosophical tradition):

• Brahman: Ultimate reality, unchanging and all-pervading
• Atman: Individual self, ultimately identical with Brahman
• Maya: Illusion or ignorance obscuring the true reality of atman and Brahman
• Moksha: Liberation from the cycles of birth, death and re-birth by transcending maya and realising the unity of atman with brahman.

With these key concepts as the foundation, Shankaracharya wrote 18 commentaries on major scriptural texts and authored 23 books on the fundamentals of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy, which expound the principles of the non-dual brahman. Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought. It deals with the non-dual nature of brahman and atman. Advaita is considered the most influential sub-school of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.

Shankaracharya also composed over 70 devotional and meditative hymns like Soundarya Lahari, Sivananda Lahari, Nirvana Shatakam, Maneesha Panchakam, etc.

Among his seminal contributions to the Hindu religion and philosophy are:

• Commentaries on 12 major Upanishad-s (ancient Indian philosophical treatises appearing at the end of the four Vedas) with Advaitic  interpretations
• Commentary on sage Badarayana’s Brahma Sutra-s (or Vedanta Sutra-s), a Sanskrit text which synthesises and harmonises Upanishadic ideas and practices
• Commentary on the Bhagavad-gita (The Song of God) from an Advaita perspective
• Vivekachudamani (Crest Jewel of Discrimination), a comprehensive poetic guide to spiritual growth and self-realisation
• Upadeshasahasri (A Thousand Teachings), a good introduction to Shankaracharya’s philosophy.

With his voluminous literature of bhashya-s (commentaries), prakarana-s (treatises), devotional hymns, verses and stotra-s (psalms) ‘culled out from the garden of the Upanishads,’ Shankaracharya shaped Indian thought and philosophy in a fundamental way, contributing to Hindu resurgence and identity. He is credited with unifying Indian thought by integrating its diverse philosophical traditions, and with promoting Sanskrit education.

Adi Shankaracharya was known to reconcile various Hindu sects – Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism – with the introduction of the Pañchāyatana form of worship, the simultaneous worship of five deities – Ganesha, Surya, Vishnu, Shiva and Devi, arguing that all deities were different forms of the one Brahman.

During his extensive travels, Shankaracharya established four amnaya matha-s (traditional Hindu monasteries) in the four corners of the country, at Sringeri (Karnataka), Dwaraka (Gujarat), Puri (Odisha) and Jyotirmath (Uttarakhand), entrusting each with a Veda and a philosophical tradition. Their foundation and able stewardship by an illustrative lineage of learned disciples till today had a significant role in the development of his teachings into the leading philosophy of India.

A philosopher-poet-saint-scholar-teacher with stupendous achievements in multiple arenas, Shankaracharya lived only for a short span of 32 years. However, he had many disciples and followers who continued and elaborated his work, notably the 9th-century philosopher Vachaspati Mishra. The extensive Advaita literature continues to influence and inspire modern Hindu thought.

Shankaracharya’s scholarship and intellectual rigour, his poetic splendour and spiritual humility, and his role in unifying Indian thought inspired several Western philosophers like Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. His extensive work continues to engage many Indic scholars from across the world even today.

Ramanujacharya – Vishishtadvaita Vedanta

Ramanujacharya (1017-1137 CE) was a Hindu philosopher and theologian who founded the Vishishtadvaita school of Vedanta. His teachings emphasised the importance of devotion, self-surrender, and the personal relationship between the individual self (jiva) and the ultimate reality (Brahman).

Here are some key teachings of Ramanuja:

Core Teachings

• Vishishtadvaita: Ramanuja’s philosophy is known as Vishishtadvaita, which means “qualified non-dualism,” or qualified monism. He believed that the ultimate reality, Brahman, is one, but has multiple attributes and qualities. It is the ‘atman of all things and all beings,’ according to him
• Bhakti: Ramanuja emphasised the importance of devotion (bhakti) and self-surrender (prapatti) to attain liberation. He believed that devotion to a personal deity (such as Vishnu) is essential for spiritual growth
• Jiva-Brahman relationship: Ramanuja taught that the individual self (jiva) is a part of the ultimate reality (brahman), but is not identical with it. He believed that the jiva has a personal relationship with Brahman, which is characterised by devotion and surrender
• Besides emphasising the spiritual authority of the Veda-s, the Upanishad-s and the Bhagavad-gita as the ultimate source of knowledge, Ramanuja drew upon the Pancharatra Agama-s, a set of scriptures that sanctify the Bhakti tradition and provide guidance on worship and devotion

Key Concepts

• Prapatti: Self-surrender, or the act of surrendering oneself to a higher power
• Saranaagati: The act of taking refuge in a higher power, often accompanied by self-surrender
• Bhagavan: The personal deity, often identified with Vishnu, who is the object of devotion and worship
• Jnana: Knowledge, which is essential for spiritual growth, but not sufficient for liberation
• Vijnana: Direct experience or realisation, which is the ultimate goal of spiritual practice

Influence and Legacy

• Vishishtadvaita tradition: Ramanuja’s teachings gave rise to the Vishishtadvaita tradition, which emphasises devotion and self-surrender
• Sri Vaishnavism: His teachings also influenced the development of Sri Vaishnavism, a tradition of devotion to Vishnu

Madhvachrya – Dvaita Vedanta

Madhvacharya (1238-1317 CE) was a Hindu philosopher and theologian who founded the Dvaita school of Vedanta. His teachings emphasised the importance of devotion, self-surrender and the personal relationship between the individual self (jiva) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). They are regarded as a strongly theistic philosophic exposition of the Upanishads.

Here are some key teachings of Madhva:

Core Teachings

• Dvaita: Madhva’s philosophy is known as Dvaita, which means “dualism.” Unlike Ramanuja, he believed that the ultimate reality, Brahman, is a dualistic reality and distinct from the individual self (jiva)
• Bhakti: Like Ramanuja, Madhva too emphasised the importance of devotion (bhakti) and self-surrender (prapatti) to attain liberation
• Jiva-Brahman relationship: Madhva taught that the individual self (jiva) has a personal relationship with Brahman, which is characterised by devotion and surrender.
• Like Ramanuja, Madhva too emphasised the spiritual authority of the Veda-s, the Upanishad-s and the Bhagavad-gita, and drew upon the Pancharatra Agama-s.

Key Concepts

• Tattva-viveka: The distinction between the ultimate reality (Brahman) and the individual self (jiva)
• Bheda: The distinction between different entities, including the distinction between Brahman and jiva
• Prapatti: Self-surrender, or the act of surrendering oneself to a higher power.
• Bhagavan: The personal deity, often identified with Vishnu, who is the object of devotion and worship
• Moksha: Liberation, which is the ultimate goal of spiritual practice

Both Vishistadvaita and Dvaita sub-schools of Vedanta reject the non-dualistic (Advaita) view of the ultimate reality, which holds that the individual self (jiva) is identical with the ultimate reality.

Vishishtadvaita holds that the ultimate reality (Brahman) is a unified, all-encompassing reality with multiple attributes, while Dvaita holds that the ultimate reality is a dualistic reality, with a fundamental distinction between God (Vishnu) and the individual self (jiva).

Both the schools influenced the development of Vaishnavism, a tradition of devotion to Vishnu.

Nimbarka – Dvaitadvaita Vedanta

Nimbarka, another Hindu philosopher and theologian from the 13^th century, founded the Dvaitadvaita school of Vedanta. Here are some key concepts propounded by him:

• Dvaitadvaita: Nimbarka’s philosophy is known as Dvaitadvaita, which means “bifurcated non-dualism.” He believed that the ultimate reality, Brahman, is both distinct from and non-different from the individual self (jiva)
• Svabhava: The inherent nature of Brahman, which is considered to be both distinct from and non-different from the individual self
• Tatastha: The state of being “on the border” or “in between,” which describes the relationship between the individual self and Brahman
• Prapatti: Self-surrender, or the act of surrendering oneself to a higher power
• Bhagavan: The personal deity, often identified with Krishna, who is the object of devotion and worship
• Moksha: Liberation, which is the ultimate goal of spiritual practice

Nimbarka’s teachings also influenced the development of Vaishnavism, a tradition of devotion to Vishnu.

MODERN INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS (1500 CE – Present)

Sri Ramakrishna

Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886 CE), revered as Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, was a Hindu mystic and saint who emphasised the importance of devotion, spiritual practice and self-realisation. His teachings, as recorded by his disciple, Swami Vivekananda, emphasise the universal principles of spirituality and the importance of experiencing God directly.

Here are some key teachings of Sri Ramakrishna:

Core Teachings

• God-realisation: Sri Ramakrishna emphasised the importance of direct experience of God, which he considered the ultimate goal of human life
• Devotion: He taught that devotion (bhakti) is the most effective means of attaining God-realisation
• Spiritual practice: Sri Ramakrishna emphasised the importance of spiritual practice (sadhana) in attaining God-realisation

Key Concepts

• The Divine Mother: Sri Ramakrishna often referred to God as the Divine Mother, emphasising the nurturing and compassionate aspects of God.
• The importance of a guru: He taught that a guru, or spiritual teacher, is essential for guiding the seeker on the path to God-realisation.
• The role of faith: Sri Ramakrishna emphasised the importance of faith (shraddha) in spiritual practice.
• The importance of self-control: He taught that self-control (atma-vinigraha) is essential for spiritual growth.
• The concept of vijnana: Sri Ramakrishna often referred to the concept of vijnana, or transcendental knowledge, which is beyond the limits of reason and intellect.

Universal Principles

• The unity of all existence: Sri Ramakrishna taught that all existence is ultimately one, and that God is the ultimate reality underlying all phenomena.
• The importance of love and compassion: He emphasised the importance of cultivating love and compassion for all beings.
• The need for self-purification: Sri Ramakrishna taught that self-purification (atma-shuddhi) is essential for spiritual growth.

Legacy

• Single unified religion: Sri Ramakrishna endorsed the idea of a single unified religion for the world – that of God without the confinements of labels like Hindu, Muslim or Christian.
• The Ramakrishna Movement: Sri Ramakrishna’s teachings gave rise to the Ramakrishna Movement, which emphasises the importance of spiritual practice, devotion and selfless service to others.

Swami Vivekananda 

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902 CE), as a disciple of Sri Ramakrishna, played a key role in introducing Indian spirituality to the Western world. Expanding on Sri Ramakrishna’s message, his teachings emphasised the importance of self-realisation, spiritual growth and service to others.

Here are some key teachings of Swami Vivekananda:

Core Teachings

• Self-realisation: Swami Vivekananda emphasised the importance of self-realisation, or direct experience of one’s true nature
• Spiritual growth: He taught that spiritual growth is a lifelong process that requires effort, discipline and dedication
• Service to others: Swami Vivekananda emphasised the importance of serving others, particularly those who are suffering or in need

Key Concepts

• The Four Yogas: Swami Vivekananda wrote extensively on the four yoga-s to achieve liberation: Jnana Yoga (the path of knowledge), Bhakti Yoga (the path of devotion), Karma Yoga (the path of action), and Raja Yoga (the path of meditation). In Karma Yoga, the active aspect of mind is involved; in Bhakti Yoga, the emotional aspect; in Raja Yoga, the mystical aspect; and in Jnana Yoga, the intellectual aspect
• The Concept of Dharma: He emphasised the importance of living a life of dharma, or righteousness, which involves fulfilling one’s duties and responsibilities fully
• The Role of the Guru: Swami Vivekananda taught that a guru, or spiritual teacher, can play a crucial role in guiding the seeker on the path to self-realisation
• The Importance of Meditation: He emphasised the importance of meditation in achieving spiritual growth and self-realisation

Universal Principles

• The Unity of All Existence: Swami Vivekananda taught that all existence is ultimately one, and that God is the ultimate reality underlying all phenomena
• The Importance of Love and Compassion: He emphasised the importance of cultivating love and compassion for all beings
• The Need for Self-Purification: Swami Vivekananda taught that self-purification is essential for spiritual growth

Influence and Legacy

• Influence on Indian and Western Thought: Swami Vivekananda’s teachings, and through him the universal message of his master, had a significant impact on Indian thought, particularly in the areas of spirituality and philosophy. His teachings also influenced Western thought, particularly in the areas of spirituality and psychology.
• The Ramakrishna Mission: Swami Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission, which is a worldwide organisation dedicated to promoting spirituality, education and social service.

Sri Aurobindo 

Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950 CE) was an Indian philosopher, yogi and nationalist who developed a comprehensive spiritual philosophy known as Integral Yoga. His teachings emphasise the importance of spiritual growth, self-transformation and the evolution of human consciousness.

Here are some key teachings of Aurobindo:

Core Teachings

• Integral Yoga: Aurobindo’s spiritual philosophy, which aims to integrate the physical, mental and spiritual aspects of human nature
• Evolution of Consciousness: He believed that human consciousness evolves over time towards a higher level of awareness and that this evolution is the ultimate goal of human existence
• The Importance of Self-Transformation: Aurobindo emphasised the need for individuals to transform themselves spiritually, morally and intellectually

Key Concepts

• The Supermind: Aurobindo believed that the Supermind is a higher level of consciousness that is beyond the limits of the human mind
• The Overman: He envisioned the Overman as a being who has transcended the limitations of human nature and has achieved a higher level of consciousness
• The Importance of the Divine: Aurobindo emphasised the importance of recognising and realising the divine in all aspects of life

Spiritual Practices

• Meditation: Aurobindo recommended meditation as a means of quieting the mind and accessing higher states of consciousness
• Yoga: He believed that yoga is a powerful tool for spiritual growth and self-transformation
• Surrender and Self-Offering: Aurobindo emphasised the importance of surrendering one’s ego and self-offering to the divine

Influence and Legacy

• Influence on Indian Philosophy: Aurobindo’s teachings had a significant impact on Indian philosophy, particularly in the areas of spirituality and yoga
• Influence on Western Spirituality: His teachings also influenced Western spirituality, particularly in the areas of transpersonal psychology and integral theory
• Auroville: Aurobindo’s vision of a utopian community, Auroville, was established in 1968 and continues to be a centre for spiritual growth and self-transformation.

Jiddu Krishnamurti

Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895-1986 CE) was an Indian philosopher, spiritual teacher, and writer who developed a unique and influential philosophy that emphasised the importance of individual freedom, self-awareness, and the rejection of authority.

Here are some key teachings of Jiddu Krishnamurti:

Core Teachings

• The Importance of Self-Awareness: Krishnamurti emphasised the need for individuals to develop self-awareness, which he believed was essential for understanding oneself and the world
• Rejection of Authority: He rejected all forms of authority, including spiritual and religious leaders, and encouraged individuals to think for themselves
• The Limitations of Knowledge: Krishnamurti believed that knowledge was limited and that it could not provide the answers to life’s fundamental questions

Key Concepts

• The “Observer-Observed” Relationship: Krishnamurti often spoke about the relationship between the observer (the self) and the observed (thoughts, emotions, and experiences)
• The “Process” of Thought: He believed that thought was a process that created the self and that this process was the root cause of human suffering
• The Importance of Silence: Krishnamurti often emphasised the importance of silence, which he believed was necessary for self-awareness and understanding

Spiritual Practices

• Meditation: Krishnamurti encouraged individuals to meditate, but not in the classical sense. Instead, he advocated for a form of meditation that involved awareness of the present moment
• Self-Inquiry: He encouraged individuals to engage in self-inquiry, which involved questioning one’s own thoughts, emotions and experiences
• Awareness of the Present Moment: Krishnamurti emphasised the importance of being aware of the present moment, which he believed was the only moment that truly existed

Influence and Legacy

Influence on Modern Spirituality: Krishnamurti’s teachings have had a significant impact on modern spirituality, particularly in the areas of self-awareness and personal growth.

Influence on Education: His teachings have also influenced education, particularly in the areas of holistic learning and self-directed learning.

Founding of Schools and Organisations: Krishnamurti founded several schools and organisations, including the Krishnamurti Foundation, which continues to promote his teachings and ideas.

Rajneesh 

Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh (1931-1990 CE) was an Indian spiritual teacher and philosopher who developed a unique and influential philosophy that emphasised the importance of individual freedom, self-awareness and spiritual growth.

Here are some key teachings of Rajneesh:

Core Teachings

• The Importance of Meditation: Rajneesh emphasised the importance of meditation in achieving self-awareness and spiritual growth
• Rejection of Traditional Religions: He rejected traditional religions and their dogmatic approaches, advocating instead for a more individualistic and experiential approach to spirituality
• The Importance of Self-Awareness: Rajneesh believed that self-awareness was essential for understanding oneself and the world

Key Concepts

• The “Buddha” Within: Rajneesh believed that every individual has a “Buddha” within, which represents their highest potential and inner wisdom
• The “Witness”: He often spoke about the “witness,” which refers to the ability to observe oneself and one’s experiences without judgment or attachment
• “Zorba the Buddha”: Rajneesh’s concept of “Zorba the Buddha” represents the ideal of a person who is both spiritually aware and fully engaged in the world

Spiritual Practices

• Dynamic Meditation: Rajneesh developed a unique form of meditation known as “dynamic meditation,” which involves physical movement and emotional expression
• Kundalini Meditation: He also taught kundalini meditation, which involves the awakening of the kundalini energy (a supposed spiritual energy that lies dormant at the base of the spine)
• Sannyas: Rajneesh encouraged his followers to take sannyas, or spiritual initiation, which involves renouncing worldly attachments and dedicating oneself to spiritual growth

Influence and Legacy

• Influence on Western Spirituality: Rajneesh’s teachings have had a significant impact on Western spirituality, particularly in the areas of meditation and personal growth.
• Controversy and Criticism: His teachings and methods have also been the subject of controversy and criticism, particularly with regard to his views on sex and relationships.
• Legacy of Osho Centres and Communities: Rajneesh’s followers have established numerous centres and communities around the world, which continue to promote his teachings and offer spiritual retreats and workshops.